1. Theory of volleyball

All elements in volleyball

Volleyball is a complex sport with several key technical elements, each crucial for effective team performance. Understanding these elements helps coaches and players develop precise strategies and analyze matches more effectively. Below is a detailed overview of each volleyball skill according to the official FIVB classification.

Service (symbol: S)

The action that starts each rally; when a player sends the ball into the opponent’s court.

Float serve - A serve without spin, characterized by a short approach.
Jump serve - A powerful serve performed with a jump, usually with topspin.
Hybrid serve - Combines elements of float and jump serves, usually characterized by a short approach like a float serve, and topspin like a jump serve

Reception (symbol: R)

The first contact after the opponent’s serve aimed at delivering the ball accurately to the setter.

The reception types are the same as the types of serves: float reception, jump reception, and hybrid reception.

Set (symbol: E)

The second team contact involves delivering the ball precisely to an attacker:

Quick - A fast and dynamic set with a low ball trajectory. Middleblockers attack from quick balls.
Tense - A ball with a slightly higher ball trajectory than quick ball. Outside hitters and opposites attack from tense balls.
Highball set – a high set with a high ball trajectory, usually played when the ball is passed outside the 3m area.

Sets to the middle will always be quick, whereas sets to the wings, when coming from good passes, will typically be tense. It is worth noting that in-system sets played to the middle blocker and the attacker on the wings will be different, for instance, in the width of the set.

Attack (symbol: A)

Usually, the third team contact is intended to score points by directing the ball into the opponent’s court:

The types of attack are the same as the types of sets: quick attack, tense attack, and highball attack.

Block (symbol: B)

A defensive action at the net aimed at stopping or redirecting an opponent’s attack

The types of attack are the same as the types of attack, so: quick attack block, tense attack block, and highball attack block.

Dig (symbol: D)

A defensive action intended to keep the ball in play after an opponent’s attack:

The types of digs are the same as the types of attack, so: quick attack defense, tense attack defense, highball attack defense
Cover (symbol: D!) - Specific defensive action where players attempt to keep the ball on their own side after an attacker from their team hits the ball into the block, and falls back onto the attacking team’s side.

Freeball (symbol: F)

The first contact after receiving a ball delivered by the opponent without a direct attack. Typically, this is an easy-to-handle ball, allowing the passing team to organize a strong offensive play.

Positions of players

Each player has a specific role on the court, contributing to both offense and defense. Understanding the positions is key to recognizing the strategy and teamwork behind every play.

Player Positions:

Setter – The playmaker of the team, responsible for setting the ball to attackers. They need quick decision-making and precise ball control.
Middle Blocker – Positioned at the center of the net, their main role is to block opponents’ attacks and execute quick hits in offense.
Opposite – Often the team’s main scorer, playing opposite the setter. They attack from the right side and also contribute to blocking.
Outside Hitter – A versatile player who attacks from the left side, receives serves, and plays in both front and back row.
Libero – A defensive specialist, wearing a different color jersey. They cannot attack or serve and focus on digging and receiving.

Rotations

In volleyball, there are six rotations, essential for the analysis. We have six players on each side of the court and, as we know from the latest post, six basic zones. Players change their positions after each side-out is scored. The rotation number comes from the zone where the setter stays (except in the US, where the rotations are defined differently). So, for example, if our setter is in zone 3, we have the rotation number 3.

Before every single rally, players are divided into front-row and back-row positions. The front-row players stay at positions 4, 3, and 2, while the back-row players occupy positions 5, 6, and 1. Back-row players must be positioned farther back from the centerline than their corresponding front-row players. After the service hit, players can move and take up any position on the court and in the free zone.

Players rotate clockwise whenever their team wins a point after the other team has served (side-out phase). Then, the player in position 2 moves to position 1 (the server), position 1 moves to 6, 6 moves to 5, and so on.

The rotation on the court is designed to create balance between offense and defense. The setter is placed opposite the opposite hitter, so that one of them is always in the front row while the other is in the back. The middle blockers are also positioned opposite each other, as are the outside hitters. This setup ensures that each position is represented evenly throughout the rotation, maintaining the team’s structure and strength during the match. It's worth adding that libero is usually playing instead of middle-blocker in zones 1,6,5 (except for the serve)

In volleyball, players rotate clockwise on the court everywhere in the world, including the USA. However, the way the zones are numbered differs:

International system (FIVB): The rotations are numbered clockwise. This is the most commonly used system worldwide. (1 → 6 → 5 → 4 → 3 → 2 → 1).
USA system: The rotations are numbered counterclockwise, even though players still rotate clockwise. The first rotation is where the setter is, but when they rotate, they are in the 2nd rotation. (1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 5 → 6 → 1).

The rotation direction is the same, but the rotation numbers are assigned differently, which can cause confusion when comparing systems.

Rotation 1

In this rotation, the setter is positioned in the second row in zone number one. This isn’t a comfortable position for the setter. He has a long way to go to the net, where he usually sets the ball. Moreover, this is the only rotation with opposite attacks from zone number four. Often, this causes a lot of trouble, and teams tend to lose a lot of points in this rotation.

Alternative version with opposite running from left to right side:

Alternative version with opposite running on the back:

Rotation 6 (Rotation 2 in USA)

In this rotation, in the front row, three players can attack the ball - outside hitter, middle blocker, and opposite, which is convenient for the team. Usually, it also means a higher block in the front row (because the setter is in the back row now).

Rotation 5 (Rotation 3 in USA)

The setter runs from the left side of the court, so setting the ball to the opposite is more complicated. The important thing is that when the team serves the ball, the libero is not present on the court, so the team’s defense is not so good.

Rotation 4 (Rotation 4 in USA)

After reception, the setter again runs to set from the left side of the court. He often makes the mistake of turning too quickly, and he stops away from the zone “0”. This may cause trouble because he may struggle with a good set even after a perfect reception.

Rotation 3 (Rotation 5 in USA)

In this rotation, the setter is in the middle of the front row, so after the positive reception of his team, he has the shortest way to the ball. Some teams left the opposite player to attack from the pipe, and the outside who passes the ball in zone 1 attacks from this zone.

Rotation 2 (Rotation 6 in USA)

In this rotation, the serving player is the second middle blocker, so we don’t have a libero on the court. The setter is positioned on the right side of the court.

How to judge reception?

Some elements in volleyball are rated objectively, for example, attack - you can easily see if it was a kill, a blocked attempt, an error, etc. There is a much more complicated situation when we talk about reception. This element is rated very subjectively, and the differences between the two scouts might be significant. It doesn’t mean that any of them are making mistakes. They just might have different criteria.

In VolleyStation, reception can have the following effects:

Perfect (Symbol: #, Grade: 4)

The ball is passed to a setter in the best way possible. The trajectory of the ball is high and appropriate, allowing the setter to comfortably set the ball. Setting is easy, and all attack options are open.

Good (Symbol: +, Grade: 3)

Pass that requires the setter to move a little. He has to make 2-3 steps to the ball. Some attack options might be a little challenging to set. It also has a high and right ball trajectory.

Positive reception (Symbol: +#)

This number that we can see in the match report includes perfect and good passes divided by all passing attempts

Modified/Neutral (Symbol: !, Grade: 2)

The ball is received within the 3-meter line with a high ball trajectory. Setter has a minimum of 2 attack options.

Poor (Symbol: -, Grade: 1)

There are two types of negative reception. The first one depends on the reception ending zone, which in this case is at least 3.5 meters off the net or very close to the antenna. The second one describes the situation when the ball is received very low, and sometimes the setter needs to fall onto his knees to set the ball or use a forearm pass instead. In this case, the received ball can also be difficult to set due to its low, flat trajectory, which causes it to pass over toward the opponent’s side. To keep the ball on the receiving team’s side, the setter uses one hand to make the set, which makes the set much difficult, and in this scenario, the setter does not have a lot of options to set a ball (it is usually just one option)

Usually, setting to the middle blocker is impossible — unless you have a brilliant setter.

Overpass (Symbol: /, Grade: 0.5)

The ball is sent back to the other side of the net or cannot be attacked.

Error (Symbol: =, Grade: 0)

Direct mistake in reception. The team loses the point.

Zones

Statisticians see nine zones when they are looking at the court. There are three additional zones (compared to the knowledge of players or coaches who use six zones) between the third and sixth meters on the court. From left to right side, we have zones 7, 8, and 9.

Congratulations! You now have the basic volleyball theory behind you.

In the next email, you’ll receive your first lesson on how to start coding a game. Get ready to dive into the exciting world of match analysis!

Stay tuned!

For more:

The setter calls the plays (schemas). For now, just remember this—you’ll use it in the future.